Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is an educational approach to L2 learning and teaching where tasks constitute the main focus of classroom instruction (Barkaoui et al., 2013), particularly how to assess learning outcomes (Alderson et al., 2021; Bachman & Palmer, 1996; 2007; Harding, 2014; Davis, 2018; Sato & McNamara, 2019). In its implementation, one of the major challenges facing teachers is the lack of empirical evidence for task design/selection relating to task complexity and the cognitive load imposed by tasks perceived by task-takers. To address the issue, we investigated L2 learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of cognitive load of integrated speaking tasks, one type of advocated tasks for TBLT, and factors that affect such perceptions within Robinson’s Triadic Componential Framework as proposed by some scholars in task research field. In a mixed-method design, we collected data using a self-rating scale, a self-rating questionnaire (N=430), and semi-structured interviews (N=10) in the context of integrated speaking tasks for helping shed light on task design/selection criteria. Our analysis revealed that task complexity factors contributed to participants’ perceptions of cognitive load, and in the four factors under investigation, prior knowledge was perceived as a stronger determinant of cognitive load of a specific task than planning time, steps involved and task type. These findings will provide empirical evidence for task design/selection in TBLT implementation, especially for the use of integrated speaking tasks in TBLT aiming at EFL speaking instruction. They also lend validation support to Robinson’s framework and provide implications for L2 assessment.
Alderson, J. C., Brunfaut, T., & Harding, L. (2017). Bridging assessment and learning: a view from second and foreign language
assessment. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 24(3), 379–387.
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language testing in practice: Designing and developing useful language tests. Oxford University Press.
Barkaoui, K., Brooks, L., Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2013). Test-takers’ strategic behaviors in independent and integrated speaking tasks. Applied Linguistics, 34(3), 304–324.
Davis, L. (2018). Analytic, holistic, and primary trait marking scales. In J. I. Liontas, A. Shehadeh (Eds.), The TESOL encyclopaedia of English language teaching, Vol. II: Approaches and methods in English for speakers of other languages (pp.1-6). Wiley-Blackwell.
Frost, K., Clothier, J., Huisman, A., & Wigglesworth, G. (2020). Responding to a TOEFL iBT integrated speaking task: Mapping task demands and test takers’ use of stimulus content. Language Testing, 37(1), 133–155.
Harding, L. (2014). Communicative language testing: Current issues and future research. Language Assessment Quarterly, 11(2), 186–197.
Huang, H. T. D., Hung, S. T. A., & Plakans, L. (2018). Topical knowledge in L2 speaking assessment: Comparing independent and integrated speaking test tasks. Language Testing, 35(1), 27–49.
Sato, T., & McNamara, T. (2019). What counts in second language oral communication ability? The perspective of linguistic laypersons. Applied Linguistics, 40(6), 894-916.
Lawrence Jun Zhang
Lawrence Jun Zhang, PhD, is Professor of Linguistics-in-Education and Associate Dean, Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland, New Zealand. A past Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of Oxford, he has published extensively on various aspects of the psychology of language learning and teaching in Applied Linguistics; Applied Linguistics Review; Modern Language Journal; British Journal of Educational Psychology; Discourse Processes; Reading & Writing; Reading & Writing Quarterly; Journal of Psycholinguistic Research; Instructional Science; System; TESOL Quarterly; Language Awareness; Language, Culture and Curriculum; Language and Education; Language Teaching Research; Journal of Second Language Writing; Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development; International Journal of Bilingualism; International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism; RELC Journal, among others. He was the sole recipient of the “TESOL Award for Distinguished Research” in 2011 for his article in TESOL Quarterly. He is a co-editor for System, serving on the editorial boards of Journal of Second Language Writing, Applied Linguistics Review, Metacognition & Learning, Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, and RELC Journal. Additionally, he reviews manuscripts for a good number of journals, including Applied Linguistics, Language Learning, Modern Language Journal, Reading & Writing, Reading & Writing Quarterly, Language Teaching, Language Teaching Research, Computer-Assisted Language Learning, and ELT Journal, among others. In the recent Stanford University Rankings of scholars’ academic impact, he has been listed in the top 2% Scientists in the World in the disciplinary areas of Linguistics/Language/Applied Linguistics.
Email: lj.zhang@auckland.ac.nz
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1025-1746
张军(Lawrence Jun Zhang)博士现为新西兰奥克兰大学教育学部副部长，应用语言学正教授，博士研究生生导师；中国英语写作教学与研究专业委员会副会长，中国学术英语教学研究会常务理事；美国应用语言学学会会员，TESOL协会会员；新西兰应用语言学学会常务理事、秘书长；欧洲学术写作教学研究会会员；SSCI索引期刊TESOL Quarterly常任栏目主编，知名SSCI一区国际期刊System: An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics联合主编, Frontiers in Psychology副主编，Applied Linguistics、Language Learning、Modern Language Journal，TESOL Quarterly, Language Teaching 及Language Teaching Research在内的26家SSCI期刊论文特邀评阅人，SSCI期刊Journal of Second Language Writing, Applied Linguistics Review, RELC Journal, Metacognition and Learning 等16家国际期刊的编委，Routledge, Springer, Palgrave Macmillan, 英国爱丁堡大学出版社、香港大学出版社、Multilingual-Matters等7家知名国际出版社书稿审阅人。
张军曾任新加坡应用语言学学会常务理事、秘书长(2005-2012), TESOL国际学会遴选提名委员会委员(TESOL’s Nomination Committee), TESOL Quarterly学刊主编遴选委员会主席 (TESOL President-appointed Chair, TESOL Quarterly国际期刊 Editor Search Committee 2015-2017)，美国应用语言学学会“优秀论文奖评选委员会”副会长(2015-2018), 美国TESOL国际学会2011年度“最佳科研论文奖”唯一得主，2016年当选TESOL全球领军学者之一 (TESOL’s 50@50)，奥克兰大学优秀博士生导师 (Excellence in Teaching Award: Research Supervision 2014), 吉林省吉林大学“长白山”讲座教授，山西省“百人计划”文科专家、太原理工大学“荣誉教授”，湖北省“楚天学者“、华中科技大学“客座教授”、西北师范大学、上海外国语大学、西安交通大学、东南大学、哈尔滨工业大学、电子科技大学、东北师范大学、郑州大学客座教授。
张军本科毕业于上海外国语大学，获文学学士学位；次年，考取西北师范大学外语系英语语言文学三年制硕士研究生，师从俞杰教授和张智学副教授，在西北师范大学完成学位论文开题和毕业答辩后由河南大学张今教授指导参加学位论文答辩获得文学硕士学位。1995年获新加坡政府研究生全额奖学金赴南洋理工大学全日制学习一年获得英语教学研究生文凭特优毕业生 (PGDELT/Distinction)、次年又获南洋理工大学全额博士奖学金成为该校首位英语应用语言学方向的博士生，毕业后留校并荣升副教授获得终身教职。2012年请辞后赴任奥克兰大学教授及教育学部副部长。
主要研究兴趣包括元认知、英语二语读写发展、学术英语写作等，发表论文、书评、章节近200篇，其中在SSCI期刊独著及合著100余篇。因为读写技能之间的交融关系，近年来，他也致力于学术英语研究，尤其是在学术英语背景下的外语学习者习得书面语时所面临的种种挑战，包括学术语篇的元话语特征以及英汉语对比修辞特征以及外语教材的意识形态及文化特征。代表作品发表于Applied Linguistics, Applied Linguistics Review, TESOL Quarterly, Journal of Second Language Writing, System, Journal of English for Academic Purposes, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, Discourse Processes, Metacognition and Learning, Modern Language Journal, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Teaching Research, Reading and Writing, Reading & Writing Quarterly, Frontiers in Psychology, RELC Journal, British Journal of Educational Psychology等国际知名刊物以及《外国语》《外语界》《外语电化教学》《外语教学》《外语与外语教学》《现代外语》《中国外语》《外语教学理论与实践》《西安外国语大学学报》《当代外语研究》《山东外语教学》及《复旦外国语言文学论丛》等国内知名期刊。
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